Chapter 4: General Principles of Interpretation

IN THIS CHAPTER, you will discover:  

• Why we need to interpret the Bible. 
• The role of observation and correlation. 
• Four basic rules of biblical interpretation. 
• Additional rules of biblical interpretation. 

AS A RESULT, you will be able to:  

• "Be still" and hear the voice of Scripture. 
• Become a Bible detective. 
• Discover how Scripture interprets Scripture. 
• Interpret the epistles in light of present-day living.

Key Scripture: "And beginning with Moses and all the Prophets, he explained [interpreted] to them what was said in all the Scriptures concerning himself" (Luke 24:27).

Key Words: Eisegesis, Hermeneutics, Exegesis.

If our aim in Bible reading is simply to get at the "plain meaning" of the text, why must we bother to learn how to interpret it? Can't we simply read it and allow the Holy Spirit to guide our understanding? We can approach Scripture this way; but if we do, our actual chance of hearing the "plain meaning" of the text are lessened. Realistically, two factors compel us to learn the rules of proper biblical interpretation - the nature of the reader and the nature of the text.

Though we may not be aware of them, our own interpretive presuppositions inevitably intrude when we study the Bible. The sources of these influences vary .We acquire some of them from cultural conditioning, from our education (or lack of education), from our particular historical perspective, and from the way we habitually use language. Others are derived from personal prejudices, ideas, wants, and needs. Because of such biases, we often approach the Bible with preconceived conclusions. Our study of a passage then becomes a process called eisegesis, whereby we read our presuppositions into the text. Not surprisingly, such an approach frequently ends with us not only missing the "plain meaning" of the text, but also distorting its meaning. Some contemporary examples of eisegesis are liturgical snake-handling based on Mark 16: 17 -18; "name it and claim it" faith teachings based on passages like John 16:23-24; and "health and wealth" doctrines based on passages like 3 John 2. Numerous cult doctrines are supposedly derived from the "plain meaning" of scriptural texts.

Whether we intend to or not, we all interpret the Bible, because we view its meaning through the lens of our own personal and cultural subjectivity. The question before us then is not whether to interpret the Bible, but whether we will interpret it badly or well.

A second factor that compels us to learn the art of hermeneutics (from the Greek word hermeneuo, to "explain" or "interpret") is the nature of the biblical text. We have described the Bible as God's word in human language, and pointed out that it reveals simultaneously a divine and a human (or historical) character. As such, much of the Bible is occasional literature. This means that the prophets and apostles spoke and wrote in response to the circumstances around them. The spiritual truths contained in Scripture were articulated in the contexts of particular historical events. They are marked by the cultural understanding and forms of expression typical of that time.

Because of this, the Bible is a book that must be interpreted. A tension exists between the eternal truths in the Bible and the historically conditioned language in which they are expressed. This gap between the "there and then" of biblical authorship and the "here and now" of understanding is called the hermeneutical (or interpretive) gap. It is this gap that we seek to bridge by learning some helpful principles of biblical interpretation.

How should we approach the Bible? Because the Bible has a divine side, we should approach it reverently it with a willingness to hear and obey. Because the Bible has a human (or historical) side, we should approach it with an attentiveness to its cultural, historical, and literary background. To accomplish these goals, we must allow Scripture to speak to us in its own voice without clouding its message with our own presuppositions. We call this inductive Bible study.

In inductive Bible study, we observe the particulars of a passage before drawing conclusions about the meaning of the passage. The inductive approach allows the original meaning of the passage to emerge. Based on our observations, we ask appropriate interpretive questions, and in so doing, "lead out" the meaning of the passage - a process called exegesis. In seeking answers for our interpretive questions, the cardinal rule is: a text cannot mean what it never meant. The first and most important step in interpreting any text is to uncover the original message the biblical author wanted to communicate to his contemporaries.

When we practice eisegesis instead of exegesis, we miss not only what God was saying to His people in history , but also what He intends for us to know and do today. This is unfortunate from a scholarly point of view, but it is also unfruitful from a spiritual point of view. If we are to be taught, rebuked, corrected, and trained in righteousness (2 Tim. 3:16), our attitude must be one of attentive openness. One cannot fill a cup that has not first been emptied; nor can we receive God's teaching if we have not relinquished our own pet theories, many of which, if we are honest, are self-serving in some way. In learning proper methods of interpretation we are not only increasing our store of biblical knowledge, but we are also learning to love God more perfectly with all our minds (Matt. 22:37).

Key Concepts: [See above for answers]
1. Inevitably our own interpretive _______________ intrude when we study the Bible.
2. The interpretive practice in which we read our presuppositions into the text is called _________________.
3. __________________ (from the Greek word hermeneuo) is the art of explaining or interpreting texts.
4. The gap between the "there and then" of biblical authorship and the "here and now" of understanding is called the ______________________ gap.
5. __________________ Bible study observes the particulars of a passage before drawing conclusions about its meaning.
6. Using the interpretive method called _________________, we "lead out" the meaning of the passage.
7. The cardinal rule of biblical interpretation is: ______________________________________________________________________________________________.

Life Application: Learn to quiet your thoughts to listen to and observe Scripture. What things invade your mind as you begin reading the Bible - worries, schedule, chores? With the help of the Holy Spirit, take these thoughts captive so that your study time is productive (2 Cor. 10:5). Prepare yourself by using part of your prayer time to be still (Ps. 46:10). In such stillness we can better hear God speak.

Key Scripture: "Take to heart all the words I have solemnly declared to you this day, so that you may command your children to obey carefully all the words of this law. They are not just idle words for you -- they are your life" (Deut. 32:46-47).

Observation and Correlation

Careful observation is foundational to successful analytical Bible study. It consists of seeing what is before you on the literary level and in answering the question "What does the text say?" Observation is a skill that will grow quickly with practice. As you learn what to look for, a wealth of information will appear before you. The textbook describes observation as "the role of the detective," and there is a real sense in which mystery, suspense, and the thrill of the chase are elements of inductive Bible study. So be prepared, a rewarding and exciting adventure awaits you!

Correlation relates the text under consideration with other texts that have the same or similar themes. Because of its study features, the NIVTSB is an excellent tool for cross-referencing material and acquiring a systematic overview of Scripture. The remainder of this lesson focuses on preparing you to make incisive observations.

What to Observe
The more precise your observations are, the richer your interpretive questions will be and the more appropriate your sense of personal application will become. A list of helpful hints follows about how to approach a text and what to look for there. Refer to the list repeatedly until you have mastered its content.

Have the right mental attitude. Observation requires willpower, persistence, patience, diligent recording, and caution. 

Ask six questions. Who was involved? What happened, or what ideas were expressed? Where did the events take place and what was significant about that area? When did the action take place? What was the historical context of the passage? Why did this event happen? What led up to it? Does the author interpret the event? How were things accomplished? What was the outcome or result?

Identify key terms. Key words reveal the author's focus in an especially significant way. Examples of key terms that you can easily observe are: "baptism" (in Mark 1:4-11), "love" (in 1 Cor. 13), and "meaninglessness" (in Eccl. 1: 1-2:26). Key terms will aid you greatly in grasping the central meaning of the text, and also may be fruitfully correlated with passages elsewhere through word studies. 

Observe connectives. Words like "if," "therefore," "because," "or," "for," and "in order that" are red-flag terms that alert you that the author is about to round a conceptual corner or make a significant point or conclusion. Connectives link together units of biblical texts that express completed thoughts. They thus help us to be aware of where these units (or structures; see below) begin and end. Other examples of connectives are: "then" (Eph. 4:1), "nevertheless" (1 Cor. 10:5), "just as'' (Mark 14:43), and "so that" (Rom. 5:21 ). 

Note structure. Pay attention to the way the author expresses himself. Specifically, note how he builds and presents his narrative or argument step-by-step. Observe how structures like key terms, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs relate to each other .

Romans 1 illustrates how these structural units function. Let's begin with 1: 18: "The wrath of God is being revealed from heaven against all the godlessness and wickedness of men who suppress the truth by their wickedness." The key term in this verse - "wrath" - presents itself immediately. Whose wrath is Paul talking about? The phrase "of God" tells you the answer to this question. Why is God's wrath directed against men? Verses 19-20, introduced by the connectives "For since" along with the following paragraph (vv. 21-23), give Paul's answer.

Observe that the two paragraphs comprised of verses 18-23 express one central thought: why God's wrath is revealed against humanity. The segment consisting of verses 24-32, introduced by the connective "therefore" presents another theme: how God's wrath affects humanity. (Note the triple repetition of the terrible phrase "God gave them over" in verses 24, 26, and 28.) Together these two segments make up a "who" subsection (1:18-32) in which the unrighteousness of the Gentiles is discussed. Romans 2:1-3:8 comprises another subsection that discusses the unrighteousness of the Jews. Together these two subsections form a larger section (1:18-3:20) that covers the unrighteousness of all humanity, both Gentile and Jew.

Pay attention to structural relationships. Just as individual words in a sentence modify each other, different literary structures interact within a chapter or book to create meaning. Here are some important structural relationships to watch for. 

Contrast illustrates a difference between two otherwise similar particulars. Ephesians 2: 1-3 and 4-10 contrasts the quality of life before and after receiving Christ.

Comparison illustrates a similarity between two particulars. Ephesians 5:25 speaks of husbands loving their wives "just as'' Christ loved the Church.

Cause and Effect illustrates movement from reason to result. Acts 2:1-13 recounts the immediate effects of Pentecost on the inhabitants of Jerusalem.

In repetition an important term, phrase, clause, or statement recurs. 2 Samuel 8:6 and 14 use "The LORD gave David victory wherever he went"; 1 John 2: 1, 12, 13, 18, and 28 have "dear children."

Particularization is a shifting of focus from the general to the specific. Matthew 6:1-5 speaks of "acts of righteousness" in general while verse 16 focuses on "fasting" in particular.

Generalization is the opposite of particularization and moves from the specific to the general. Matthew 10:2-4 speaks of the disciples by name; verse 5 refers to them as "these twelve."

Instrumentation describes the means through which a result is achieved. John 20:30-31 explains what John hopes to accomplish by recording the miracles of Jesus.

Explanation presents an event or idea followed by an interpretation. The "living water" of John 7:38 is shown in verse 39 to be "the Spirit."

Progression details the development of an action or an idea. Romans 13:1-10 discusses the believer's duty, first to the state (vv. 1- 7) then to his neighbor (vv. 8-10).

Look up Old Testament references. The New Testament writers saw the events occurring around them as fulfillments of Old Testament prophecy. It is essential that you familiarize yourselves with these prophecies to understand their perspective. 

Visualize the verbs. By noting the tenses of verbs you can learn, for example, whether a scripture is a command or a promise.

Interpret different literary forms appropriately. The Bible contains many types or genres of literature. Each is suited to express the meaning of God's actions and thoughts in different ways. When interpreting a biblical text, it is important to consider its literary type. The major types of biblical literature are:

HISTORICAL BOOKS. The first five books of the Bible - the Pentateuch - are historical books attributed to Moses. They tell of the creation of the earth, the beginnings of Israel, and the details of the Law, which is God's covenant contract with Israel. Joshua through Esther tell of the struggles and triumphs of God's people as salvation history unfolded. The four gospels in the New Testament give us four accounts of the life of Christ. Acts describes the founding and early history of the church. The examples contained in the historical books serve to instruct, edify, and caution us about how to live in a way pleasing to God.

PROPHETICAL BOOKS. Isaiah through Malachi in the Old Testament and Revelation in the New Testament make up the prophetical books. They contain the oracles spoken through God's "forth-tellers," the prophets. The prophets declared God's will and purpose to the people and spoke to them of the blessings and retribution that followed obedience and disobedience. Most of the predictive messages of the prophets concerned events already fulfilled, although a few are yet to be fulfilled.

POETICAL AND WISDOM LITERATURE. Old Testament writings such as Psalms, Proverbs, and Ecclesiastes make up this category of biblical literature. The Psalms are inspired songs of praise and laments to God. The Wisdom writings are inspired practical and philosophical advice on how to live the "good life."

EPISTLES. The New Testament books of Romans, Galatians, and 1 John are examples of biblical letters, or epistles. They were generally written to address the problems of specific communities of Christians in the first century. The epistles contain the inspired teaching of the apostles on issues such as the nature of salvation, the deity of Christ, and the work of the Holy Spirit. They are as Instructive to us today on matters of Christian faith and practice as they were to Christians in the first-century church.

Key Concepts: [See above ]
1. The more precise our _____________________ are, the richer our interpretive questions and applications will become.
2. Six key questions to ask in observation are: _____, _________, _________, ___________, ____________, and ______________.
3. Units of biblical texts such as terms, phrases, sentences, and paragraphs, that express completed thoughts are called _____________________________.
4. _______________________ link together units of biblical texts that express completed thoughts.
5. Three examples of structural relationships are: ______________, _________________, and ________________.
6. Three literary types or genres found in the Bible are: ________________________, __________________________, and _______________________________.
Match the following texts with the type of structural relationship they exhibit:
7. John 7:38-39 .         A. Comparison
8. Ephesians 5:25       B. Cause and Effect
9. Matthew 10:2-4 .     C. Explanation
10. Acts 2:1-13 .          D. Generalization

Life Application: As you begin to observe Scripture using your resource tools, much that you never saw will become visible, even in familiar passages. The astounding thing is that the task of observation is never completed. The Word of God is a boundless spring of new insights, discoveries, and blessings. It is as if the power and wisdom contained in Scripture were freshly renewed each day. As Jeremiah wrote: "[God's ] compassions never fail. They are new every morning" (Lam. 3:22-23). If you haven't done so, list the new insights you received from the Bible today in your study journal.

Key Scripture: 'I have hidden your word in my heart that I might not sin against you' (Ps. 119:11). 

Beginning with this lesson through Chapter 5, the Study Guide format will change. Comments and insights about the principles of interpretation will still be offered, but the textbook summaries will be less detailed. For this reason you should carefully read the discussion of each rule in the textbook. Also, Life Application will be suggested. 

Scripture Interprets Scripture 

It has long been recognized as a key hermeneutical principle that 'Scripture best explains Scripture' (Rule Two). Your NIVTSB should prove a valuable tool in helping you cross-reference vital Bible truths. Here are some additional guidelines that can help you use the Bible to interpret itself more effectively: 

The New Testament interprets the Old Testament. Since the revelation of God in Scripture and in history is progressive, we look to the later phases of that revelation to illumine and interpret the former phases. This attitude is symbolized by the Christian community each time we worship on Sunday, the "resurrection day" rather than on the traditional Jewish Sabbath, Saturday. In Christ all things are made new and the Old Covenant is perfected and fulfilled (cf. Heb. 8-10). We shall discuss this principle more under the topic of "progressive revelation."  

The epistles help to interpret the gospels. Over decades the early Church reflected on the meaning of the life and ministry of Christ and, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, interpreted and expressed its significance theologically. The epistles contain the mature thinking of the apostles about the nature of the church, the meaning of the atonement, the deity of Christ, the nature of the kingdom of God, the plan of redemption, and the norms of Christian living. It is important from an interpretive point of view to observe how the apostles themselves extended the implications of Jesus' teaching. Compare, for example, the concept of the kingdom of God found in Luke 22:28-30 with that expressed in Ephesians 2:4-7. The instructions concerning spiritual gifts given by Paul in 1 Corinthians, along with their historical background in Acts, describe patterns of Christian experience and church life that remain applicable today. 

Biblical authors interpret themselves in their other writings. If we compare the literary style of Paul or John and their use of key terms in different works, we can understand them more accurately. Observe, for example, the use of the term 'light' in John 12:35-36 and 1 John 2:7-11. 

Systematic passages interpret unclear or difficult passages. The key emphasis here is that church doctrine should never be based on an isolated or obscure passage of Scripture. Doctrines that are normative for the historic church are all supported by a systematic appeal to Scripture. All the passages dealing with a particular theme (such as the deity of Christ) are to be compared and their implications weighed to determine the whole counsel of the Bible regarding this subject. Where Scripture does not speak, we should be silent. Religious groups that establish a "doctrine" of baptism for the dead based on a single obscure passage like 1 Corinthians 15:29 or a "doctrine" regarding blood transfusions on Leviticus 17:10 or Acts 20:26-27 are manufacturing unscriptural "doctrines." 

Discriminate between local and universal truths. By universal truths (or exhortations), we mean scriptural insights or commands that apply in all places and at all times. The cosmic insight expressed in John 3:16 or the command for unconditional obedience to Christ in Mark 8:34-35 are examples of universal truths. Local truths, on the other hand, apply primarily to those addressed at a particular place and time. The covenants and curses expressed in Deuteronomy 27-30 were, for example, meant for Israel at the time of her entry into the land of Canaan. New Testament examples of local exhortations are found in Acts 15:19- 21,1 Corinthians 7:1-8:13, and Revelations 2:1-3:22. 

While local instructions are, in one sense, restricted, they may have universal implications and applications. We are not likely today to confront the question raised in 1 Corinthians 8 about whether believers should eat meat offered to idols. Nevertheless, the teaching Paul gives in this chapter regarding tempering our freedom in Christ out of love for our brother is timeless (vv. 9-13). Our task as Bible students is to determine which exhortations directly apply today and which are simply guidelines to be interpreted and adapted to our own historical situation and personal circumstances. 

Practicing Your Skills:

Rule One

  1. Study the following passages and briefly state how God would have you respond in light of the fact that the Bible is authoritative 

a. Leviticus 19: 11

b. Matthew 19:21

c. Acts 15:36-41 

Rule Two   

1. Interpret Matthew 3:9 in light of Romans 9:6-7.

2. Using Matthew 27:33-50, Mark 15:22-41, Luke 23:33-44, and John 19: 17 -37, list the order of events at the crucifixion without the use of study aids. 

Rule Three 

1. Meditate on 1 Corinthians 2:6-14. 

a. What is the secret to understanding God's wisdom? 

b. According to verse 11, what is the correlation between the thoughts of man and the thoughts of God? 

c. How does the unenlightened person respond to the truth of God (v. 14)? 

d. Should we encourage non-Christians to study the Bible?

Rule Four

1. Meditate on Matthew 5:27 -48. 

a. What three issues of the day was Jesus addressing?

b. What were the positions of the people on these issues?

c. What did Jesus say were God's positions?

d. In light of Rule Four, why do you think there were differences between how Jesus saw the issues and how the people saw them?

Key Scripture: "So in everything, do to others what you would have them do to you, for this sums up the Law and the Prophets" (Matt. 7:12).

Rule Five states: "Biblical examples are authoritative only when supported by a command." Clearly many valuable examples of behavior in the Bible are not accompanied by commands. How do we apply them to our lives correctly? And what of commands that appear to be dated or culturally relative? These questions are particularly difficult to resolve when interpreting the epistles.

Epistolary literature (or letters) comprises twenty-one of the twenty-seven books of the New Testament. This number alone shows us the importance of understanding this type of literature in Bible study. The epistles contain the earliest apostolic formulations of Christian doctrine and much instruction regarding Christian behavior. It is to this section of the Bible that Christians most often turn to learn how to think about Christ and His church and how to live in the world and in community with each other .

Much patience, observation, and research is needed to interpret the epistles correctly, for they present some challenging hermeneutical problems. Like all letters, they are occasional documents that can only be fully understood in their historical contexts. Many were written to address specific problems in a local church. Since details of these problems are missing, reading an epistle is often like listening to half a telephone conversation. We must reconstruct the missing half of the conversation by sifting for clues in the letter and through outside historical research.

We are also faced with the problem of cultural relativity in the interpretation of the epistles. Is behavior that was appropriate (or inappropriate) in the Middle Eastern culture of Paul's day appropriate (or inappropriate) for us two thousand years later in the West? Should modern women wear veils, or be allowed to preach or to teach men? What do Paul's injunctions regarding the behavior of slave owners, celibacy, and the eating of meat offered to idols mean to us today? Here are some directions for interpreting epistles:

• Wherever we share comparable historical particulars (i.e., similar life situations) with the first-century church, God's word to us is the same as His word to them. Much New Testament teaching falls into this category.
   
• In situations where the historical contexts are not comparable (such as in 1 Cor. 8:10 or 10:14-22), we can make an extended application of the text's principles. Before making an extended application, we must decide to what degree the issue under consideration is culturally relative (i.e., a matter of cultural convention or opinion) and whether it is morally indifferent (i.e., without specific scriptural prohibition).
   
• The behavior and attitudes described in the "sin lists" (Rom. 1 :29- 30; 1 Cor. 5:11; 6:9-10; Gal. 5:19-21; 2 Tim. 3:2-4) are never culturally relative or morally indifferent. What the New Testament considers to be immoral is always wrong. We may double check such issues by noting whether there is a uniform and consistent witness in Scripture regarding them. We find such a witness, for example, about issues such as homosexuality and stealing, but not about issues such as women's ministries or civil disobedience.
   
• Certain areas are culturally relative but not morally indifferent. Paul's instructions regarding the behavior of a Christian slave were morally appropriate for his day, but are not culturally transferable to ours. The civic duties of a Christian living under the rule of a Roman emperor and of one living today in a representative democracy are different, though both the ancient and the modern Christian have a moral duty to act responsibly toward the state.
   
• Finally, matters of food, drink, foot washing, observance of worship days, exchanging the holy kiss, women's head coverings, the role of women in church, and celibacy are -- in and of themselves -- both culturally relative and morally indifferent. They only become moral issues when their practice interferes with the exercise of Christian love (Rom. 14). Remember: there is no such thing as a divinely ordained culture. Our own twentieth-century presuppositions are as culturally relative as those of the first century.
   

The teachings of the epistles should be applied in terms of the question, "How can we act as salt and light in our present culture?" Bible students should always be forming and re-forming their theology based on continuing exegesis and the need for contemporary application. As the early Christians lived out the implications of teachings such as Galatians 3:28, the status of women and children in the ancient world rose and the acceptance of slavery and abortion declined. Through the light we have in Scripture, we can possess the clarity of conscience and the strength of character to guide others amidst the complexity and change of modern culture.

Practicing Your Skills:

Rule Five 

1. The leaders of your church come to you with the command to
abstain from marriage, thus following the example of Jesus and Paul.

a. What should your response be?

b. What are the limits of your spiritual leaders' authority?

c. How do we avoid misusing our freedom and liberty in Christ?

d. Give an example of the misuse of Christian liberty.

Rule Six 

1. Some passages are not to be applied in the same way they were applied at the time they were written. Interpret Matthew 5:23-24 and write out a possible application of Jesus' statement for today.

Rule Seven 

1. Write out a modern day application of Acts 17:11.

Rule Eight

1. Name several doctrines or truths that you embrace that are implied, in the Bible but are clarified in the course of church history.

Rule Nine

1. Meditate on 2 Peter 1:3-4.

a. What is the source of the promises to which Peter refers?

b. What are the purposes of the promises?

2. Give at least one example of a general promise from the Bible on which you rely daily; for example, 1 John 1:9.

3. Give at least one example of a specific promise from God's Word that you have claimed.

a. To whom was it first given?

b. What were the conditions surrounding its being given?

4. Give an example of how one could improperly claim a promise of God.